Task 2 : Reading Comprehension Part 2
Reading Comprehension For No. 1-9
1) There has,
in recent years, been an outpouring of information about the impact of
buildings on the natural environment; Information which explains and promotes
green and sustainable construction design, strives to convince others of its
efficacy and warns of the dangers of ignoring the issue. Seldom do these
documents offer any advice to practitioners, such as those designing mechanical
and electrical systems for a building, on how to utilise this knowledge on a
practical level.
2) While the
terms green and sustainable are often considered synonymous, in that they both
symbolise nature, green does not encompass all that is meant by sustainability,
which can be defined as minimizing the negative impacts of human activities on
the natural environment, in particular those which have long-term and
irreversible effects. Some elements of green design may be sustainable too, for
example those which reduce energy usage and pollution, while others, such as
ensuring internal air quality, may be considered green despite having no
influence on the ecological balance.
3) Although
there are a good many advocates of ‘green’ construction in the architectural
industry, able to cite ample reasons why buildings should be designed in a sustainable
way, not to mention a plethora of architectural firms with experience in green
design, this is not enough to make green construction come into being. The driving force behind whether a building
is constructed with minimal environmental impact lies with the owner of the
building; that is, the person financing the project. If the owner considers
green design unimportant, or of secondary importance, then more than likely, it
will not be factored into the design.
4) The
commissioning process plays a key role in ensuring the owner gets the building
he wants, in terms of design, costs and risk. At the predesign stage, the
owner’s objectives, criteria and the type of design envisaged are discussed and
documented. This gives a design team a solid foundation on which they can build
their ideas, and also provides a specific benchmark against which individual
elements, such as costs, design and environmental impact can be judged.
5) Owners who
skip the commissioning process, or fail to take ‘green’ issues into account
when doing so, often come a cropper once their building is up and running.
Materials and equipment are installed as planned, and, at first glance, appear
to fulfil their purpose adequately.
However, in time, the owner realises that operational and maintenance
costs are higher than necessary, and that the occupants are dissatisfied with
the results. These factors in turn lead to higher ownership costs as well as
increased environmental impact.
6) In some
cases, an owner may be aware of the latest trends in sustainable building
design. He may have done research into it himself, or he may have been informed
of the merits of green design through early discussion with professionals.
However, firms should not take it as read that someone commissioning a building
already has a preconceived idea of how green he intends the structure to be.
Indeed, this initial interaction between owner and firm is the ideal time for a
designer to outline and promote the ways that green design can meet the
client’s objectives, thus turning a project originally not destined for green
design into a potential candidate.
7) Typically,
when considering whether or not to adopt a green approach, an owner will ask
about additional costs, return for investment and to what extent green design
should be the limiting factor governing decisions in the design process. (1)
Many of these costs are incurred by the increased cooperation between the
various stakeholders, such as the owner, the design professionals, contractors
and end-users. (2) However, in green design, they must be involved from the
outset, since green design demands interaction between these disciplines. (3)
This increased coordination clearly requires additional expenditure. (4) A
client may initially balk at these added fees, and may require further
convincing of the benefits if he is to proceed. It is up to the project team to
gauge the extent to which a client wants to get involved in a green design
project and provide a commensurate service.
8) Of course,
there may be financial advantage for the client in choosing a greener design.
Case studies cite examples of green / sustainable designs which have
demonstrated lower costs for long-term operation, ownership and even
construction. Tax credits and rebates are usually available on a regional basis
for projects with sustainable design or low emissions, among others.
1.
The
writer’s main purpose is to…
a. explain
to professionals how they can influence clients to choose greener designs. (answer)
b.
explain
the importance of green building design in reducing long-term damage to the
environment.
c.
explain
to owners commissioning a building why ignoring green issues is costly and
dangerous.
d.
explain
to professionals why it is important to follow the correct procedures when a
building is commissioned.
2.
The
examples of green and sustainable designs given in paragraph 2 show that
a.
designs
must be sustainable in order for them to be described as green.
b.
for
the purposes of this paper, the terms green and sustainable have the same
meaning.
c.
some
sustainable designs are green, while others are not.
d. some
designs are termed green, even though they are not sustainable.
3.
According
to paragraph 3, the reason for the lack of green buildings being designed is
that…
a.
few
firms have any experience in design and constructing buildings to a green
design.
b.
construction companies are unaware of the
benefits of green and sustainable designs.
c. firms do not get to decide whether a building
is to be constructed sustainably.
d.
firms tend to convince clients that other
factors are more important than sustainability.
4.
Which
of the following is NOT true about the commissioning process?
a.
It is conducted before the building is
designed.
b. It is a
stage that all clients go through when constructing a building.
c.
It is a step in the design procedure in which
the client’s goals are identified.
d.
It provides the firm with a measure of how
well they did their job.
5.
In
paragraph 5, what does the phrase ‘come a cropper’ mean?
a. experience
misfortune
b.
change one’s mind
c.
notice the benefits
d.
make a selection
6.
In
paragraph 6, the writer implies that…
a.
most clients enter the commissioning process
with a clear idea of whether or not they want a green building.
b.
designers are usually less concerned about
green design than the clients are.
c. the
commissioning process offers a perfect opportunity to bring up the subject of
green design.
d.
firms should avoid working with clients who
reject green designs in their buildings.
7.
Where
in paragraph 7 does this sentence belong?
In
a typical project, landscape architects and mechanical, electrical and plumbing
engineers do not become involved until a much later stage.
a.
1
b. 2
c.
3
d.
4
8.
In
paragraph 7, what does ‘balk at’ mean?
a. display
shock towards
b.
agree to pay
c.
question the reason for
d.
understand the need for
9.
Green
buildings are most likely to incur more expense than conventional buildings due
to…
a.
higher taxes incurred on sustainable
buildings.
b.
higher long-term operational costs.
c.
the higher cost of green construction materials.
d. increased coordination between construction
teams.
Reading Comprehension For No. 10-21
1)
Anthropology distinguishes itself from the other social sciences by its greater
emphasis on fieldwork as the source of new knowledge. The aim of such studies
is to develop as intimate an understanding as possible of the phenomena
investigated. Although the length of field studies varies from a few weeks to
years, it is generally agreed that anthropologists should stay in the field
long enough for their presence to be considered ‘natural’ by the permanent
residents.
2)
Realistically, however, anthropologists may never reach this status. Their
foreign mannerisms make them appear clownish, and so they are treated with
curiosity and amusement. If they speak the local language at all, they do so
with a strange accent and flawed grammar. They ask tactless questions and
inadvertently break rules regarding how things are usually done. Arguably this
could be an interesting starting point for research, though it is rarely
exploited. Otherwise, anthropologists take on the role of the ‘superior
expert’, in which case they are treated with deference and respect, only coming
into contact with the most high-ranking members of the society. Anthropologists
with this role may never witness the gamut of practices which take place in all
levels of the society.
3) No matter which role one takes on,
anthropologists generally find fieldwork extremely demanding. Anthropological
texts may read like an exciting journey of exploration, but rarely is this so.
Long periods of time spent in the field are generally characterised by boredom,
illness and frustration. Anthropologists in the field encounter unfamiliar
climates, strange food and low standards of hygiene. It is often particularly trying
for researchers with middle-class, European backgrounds to adapt to societies
where being alone is considered pitiful. It takes a dedicated individual to
conduct research which is not in some way influenced by these personal
discomforts.
4) Nonetheless,
fieldwork requires the researcher to spend as much time as possible in local
life. A range of research methodologies can be utilised to extract information.
(1) These can be classified as emic or etic. (2) While emic descriptions are
considered more desirable nowadays, they are difficult to attain, even if the
researcher does his utmost to reproduce the facts from the natives’ point of
view. (3) More often than not, aspects of the researcher’s own culture,
perspective and literary style seep into the narrative. Moreover, research
generally involves translations from one language to another and from speech
into writing. In doing this, the meaning of utterances is changed. (4) The only
truly emic descriptions can be those given by the natives themselves in their
own vernacular.
5) The least
invasive type of research methodology is observation. Here, the researcher
studies the group and records findings without intruding too much on their
privacy. This is not to say, however, that the presence of the researcher will
have minimal impact on the findings. An example was Richard Borshay Lee, who,
in studying local groups in the Kalahari refused to provide the people with
food so as not to taint his research, leading to an inevitable hostility
towards the researcher which would not otherwise have been present.
6) A variant
on the observation technique, participant observation requires that the
anthropologist not only observes the culture, but participates in it too. It
allows for deeper immersion into the culture studied, hence a deeper
understanding of it. By developing a deeper rapport with the people of the
culture, it is hoped they will open up and divulge more about their culture and
way of life than can simply be observed. Participant observation is still an
imperfect methodology, however, since populations may adjust their behavior
around the researcher, knowing that they are the subject of research.
7) The
participatory approach was conceived in an attempt to produce as emic a
perspective as possible. The process involves not just the gathering of
information from local people, but involves them in the interpretation of the
findings. That is, rather than the researcher getting actively involved in the
processes within the local community, the process is turned on its head. The
local community is actively involved in the research process.
10. The main premise of the text is…
a.
the steps to be followed when undertaking
anthropological fieldwork.
b.
a history of anthropological fieldwork
methodology.
c.
the effects that an anthropological fieldwork
has on local communities.
d. the problems with conducting anthropological
fieldwork.
11. The main reason for anthropological
researchers remaining in a community for an extended period of time is that…
a.
they
can gather as much information as possible.
b.
they can try out a range of different research
methodologies.
c. they
want local people to behave naturally around them.
d.
they need time to become accustomed to the
conditions.
12. What does the passage say about
researchers who are considered a ‘clown’ by locals?
a. They do
culturally unacceptable things without realising it.
b.
They do not gain respect among high-ranking
members of the community.
c.
They cannot conduct any research of value.
d.
They do not study the language and culture of
the region before their arrival.
13. What does ‘gamut’ mean?
a.
idea or impression
b.
prohibition or taboo
c. range or extent
d.
secret or mystery
14. The writer believes that the most
difficult aspect of fieldwork for educated westerners is
a.
the lack of companionship.
b.
poor sanitary conditions.
c.
failure to meet expectations.
d. never being left alone.
15. In paragraph 3, it is implied that…
a. the
fieldworker’s emotions and mood prejudice the research.
b.
the
longer a researcher spends in the field, the more depressed he gets.
c.
middle-class
Europeans find field research more difficult than researchers from other
backgrounds.
d.
anthropological
texts tend to exaggerate the difficult conditions that researchers experience.
16. Where in paragraph 4 does this
sentence belong?
A
native’s point of view of his own lifestyle is emic, while the analytical
perspective of the outsider is etic.
a.
1
b. 2
c.
3
d.
4
17. Which of the following is NOT true
about an emic account?
a. It is likely to be more analytical in style
than an etic account.
b.
It is told from the perspective of the person
being studied.
c.
It is currently the preferred way of
conducting anthropological research.
d.
It cannot be translated without altering its
meaning.
18. Why is the example of Richard Borshay
Lee given in paragraph 5?
a.
to demonstrate that observation is an
ineffective method of gathering data.
b.
to highlight why it is important that
researchers minimize their impact on a community.
c. to show the dangers of researchers trying to
lessen their impact on a community
d.
to show how a researcher’s choice of
methodology can influence the validity of his findings.
19. How does participant observation
differ vary from straightforward observation?
a. It
requires the researcher to become actively involved in the daily lives of those
being studied.
b.
It allows the subjects of the research a
greater degree of privacy.
c.
It eradicates the problem of research subjects
altering their behaviour towards researchers.
d.
It takes longer to perform this type of
research effectively.
20. In paragraph 6, divulge is closest in
meaning to…
a.
explain
b.
illustrate
c. reveal
d.
Propose
21. Which of the following is NOT true of
the participatory approach?
a.
It attempts to reduce etic accounts of a
culture to a minimum.
b. It does not require a researcher to be
present.
c.
It aims to involve the subjects in both
information gathering and analysis.
d.
It is the reverse of the participant
observation technique.
Reading Comprehension For No. 22-25
1. The craft
of perfumery has an ancient and global heritage. The art flourished in Ancient
Rome, where the emperors were said to bathe in scent. After the fall of Rome,
much of the knowledge was lost, but survived in Islamic civilizations in the
Middle Ages. Arab and Persian pharmacists developed essential oils from the
aromatic plants of the Indian peninsula. They developed the processes of
distillation and suspension in alcohol, which allowed for smaller amounts of
raw materials to be used than in the ancient process, by which flower petals
were soaked in warm oil. This knowledge was carried back to European
monasteries during the Crusades.
2. At first,
the use of fragrances was primarily associated with healing. Aromatic alcoholic
waters were ingested as well as used externally. Fragrances were used to purify
the air, both for spiritual and health purposes. During the Black Death, the
bubonic plague was thought to have resulted from a bad odour which could be
averted by inhaling pleasant fragrances such as cinnamon. The Black Death led
to an aversion to using water for washing, and so perfume was commonly used as
a cleaning agent.
3. Later on,
the craft of perfume re-entered Europe, and was centred in Venice, chiefly
because it was an important trade route and a centre for glass-making. Having
such materials at hand was essential for the distillation process. In the late seventeenth century, trade soared
in France, when Louis XIV brought in policies of protectionism and patronage
which stimulated the purchase of luxury goods. Here, perfumery was the preserve
of glove-makers. The link arose since the tanning of leather required putrid
substances. Consequently, the gloves were scented before they were sold and
worn. A glove and perfume makers’ guild had existed here since 1190. Entering
it required 7 years of formal training under a master perfumer.
4. The trade
in perfume flourished during the reign of Louis XV, as the master
glove-and-perfume makers, particularly those trading in Paris, received
patronage from the royal court, where it is said that a different perfume was
used each week. The perfumers diversified into other cosmetics including soaps,
powders, white face paints and hair dyes. They were not the sole sellers of
beauty products. Mercers, spicers, vinegar-makers and wig-makers were all
cashing in on the popularity of perfumed products. Even simple shopkeepers were
coming up with their own concoctions to sell.
5. During the
eighteenth century, more modern, capitalist perfume industry began to emerge,
particularly in Britain where there was a flourishing consumer society. In
France, the revolution initially disrupted the perfume trade due to its
association with aristocracy, however, it regained momentum later as a wider
range of markets were sought both in the domestic and overseas markets. The
guild system was abolished in 1791, allowing new high-end perfumery shops to
open in Paris.
6. Perfume
became less associated with health in 1810 with a Napoleonic ordinance which
required perfumers to declare the ingredients of all products for internal
consumption. Unwilling to divulge their secrets, traders concentrated on
products for external use. Napoleon affected the industry in other ways too.
With French ports blockaded by the British during the Napoleonic wars, the
London perfumers were able to dominate the markets for some time.
7. One of the
significant changes in the nineteenth century was the idea of branding. Until
then, trademarks had had little significance in the perfumery where goods were
consumed locally, although they had a long history in other industries. One of
the pioneers in this field was Rimmel who was nationalized as a British citizen
in 1857. He took advantage of the spread of railroads to reach customers in
wider markets. To do this, he built a brand which conveyed prestige and
quality, and were worth paying a premium for. He recognised the role of design
in enhancing the value of his products, hiring a French lithographer to create
the labels for his perfume bottles.
8. Luxury
fragrances were strongly associated with the affluent and prestigious cities of
London and Paris. Perfumers elsewhere tended to supply cheaper products and
knock-offs of the London and Paris brands. The United States perfume industry,
which developed around the docks in New York where French oils were being
imported, began in this way. Many American firms were founded by immigrants,
such as William Colgate, who arrived in 1806. At this time, Colgate was chiefly
known as a perfumery. Its Cashmere Bouquet brand had 625 perfume varieties in
the early 20th century.
22. The purpose of the text is to…
a.
compare the perfumes from different countries
b. describe the history of perfume making
c.
describe the problems faced by perfumers
d.
explain the different uses of perfume over
time
23. Which of the following is NOT true
about perfume making in Islamic countries?
a. They created perfume by soaking flower petals
in oil.
b.
They dominated perfume making after the fall
of the Roman Empire.
c.
They took raw materials for their perfumes
from India.
d.
They created a technique which required fewer
plant materials.
24. Why does the writer include this
sentence in paragraph 2?
During
the Black Death, the bubonic plague was thought to have resulted from a bad
odour which could be averted by inhaling pleasant fragrances such as cinnamon.
a.
To explain why washing was not popular during
the Black Death
b.
To show how improper use of perfume caused
widespread disease
c.
To illustrate how perfumes used to be ingested
to treat disease
d. To give
an example of how fragrances were used for health purposes
25. Why did the perfume industry develop
in Paris?
a.
Because it was an important trade route
b.
Because of the rise in the glove-making
industry
c. Because of the introduction of new trade laws
d.
Because of a new fashion in scented gloves
Source:
https://www.examenglish.com/TOEFL/TOEFL_reading5.htm
https://www.examenglish.com/TOEFL/TOEFL_reading6.htm
https://www.examenglish.com/TOEFL/TOEFL_reading7.htm
https://www.examenglish.com/TOEFL/TOEFL_reading6.htm
https://www.examenglish.com/TOEFL/TOEFL_reading7.htm
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